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1.3.4 Niche Construction Theory
A parallel and supplementary development to evo-devo can be found in niche construction theory (Laland, Oddling-Smee, & Gilbert, 2008 ), which further emphasizes the role of environmental factors in evolution. Creanza, Fogarty, and Feldman ( 2012 ) presented a model of niche construction which involved both gene-culture and culture-culture interactions. In Chap. 6, Sect. 6.8 , I discuss the invention of writing as the beginning of niche construction in historical time from antiquity to the present. Here, I will merely present the general principles of niche construction theory. In neo Darwinism, it has been generally assumed that organisms adapt to their environment, never vice versa. Th us, the role played by the evolving organism was highly restricted. However, species living in an environment which changes abruptly through climate changes or the appearance of new predators may go extinct, adapt to the new environment, or move into a new niche. Th ere are plenty of examples where terrestrial animals have returned to the water, and aquatic animals have come on land; that is, animals that have played an active role in relation to their environment. 
However, organisms have also changed their environment, for example, beavers who built a network of channels and bridges; that is, a niche to which they soon adapted. In this way, the animals and their niche mutually influenced each other, and in the long run the organisms transformed the niche and the niche transformed the organisms. An example often used about niche construction by humans is the introduction of dairy farming in Europe, which affected the frequency of the allele for lactase persistence. Consequently, more individuals benefited from drinking milk into adulthood. Th us, human-constructed practices affected the transmission of genes and hence the general health conditions in the community.