IntroductionEnvironment and energy are crucial issues in our industrialized age, the climate change partially induced by CO2 underpins an urgent need for techniques for sustainable transformation of CO2 [1 - 3]. Porous organic polymers ( POPs ) as a new category of porous materials has revolutionary progress in many technologies and industries. These materials have special properties such as high surface areas, good physical and chemical constancy as well as adjustable organic functionalities, exhibiting considerably promising potential for high adsorption valence and efficient conversion of CO2 [4]. The POPs are constructed by the cross - linking of lighter elements ( C, H, B, O, N, S, P, etc. ) through covalent bonds [5]. Both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts have aroused essential adsorption of CO2 via cycloaddition reactions. Heterogeneous catalysts covered metal complexes, modified molecular sieves, metal–organic - frameworks ( MOFs ) , and polymers [6]. Nowadays, the catalytic production of cyclic carbonates and polycarbonates through the conversion of CO2 and epoxides is the most effective way to use CO2. They have the following features: high boiling point, low toxicity, and low vapor pressure. Cyclic carbonates were traditionally prepared by employing highly toxic phosgene. However, a greener and another pathway for the synthesis of cyclic carbonates is through the interpolation of CO2 in the C–O bond of an epoxide substrate. [7]. Thus far, excellent performances of POPs have been witnessed across the fields of gas adsorption/separation, sensing, catalysis, electrocatalysis, and batteries [8]. Among the POPs, which can be mentioned, are zeolitic imidazole frameworks ( ZIFs ) , covalent microporous polymers ( CMPs ) , metal - organic frameworks ( MOFs ) , covalent organic frameworks ( COFs ) and nanoporous ionic organic networks ( NIONs ) [9 - 10]. Several kinds of POPs are shown in Scheme 1.
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Scheme 1: Several types of porous organic polymers [9 - 10].
These materials have unique blessings such as low cost, everlasting nanopores with extreme porosity, high activity and stability, and adjustable photoelectric properties, which make them popular in several research such as photocatalysts. [11 - 12].
In early 2005, Yaghi et al. reported several new porous two - dimensional crystalline polymers ( namely, covalent organic frameworks ( COFs ) ) through the condensation reaction between boronic acid ( BDBA ) and hexahydroxy triphenylene ( HTTP ) [13 - 14]. COFs can be categorized into two - dimensional ( 2D ) and three - dimensional ( 3D ) COFs depending on the geometric symmetry of the building blocks in 2D COFs, the organic units are covalently bonded and restricted in 2D sheets that further stack to form a layered structure via p–p interaction [15].
COF materials are synthesized by the covalent linkage of organic molecules bonded in a repeating method to form a porous crystal that is ideal for gas adsorption and storage. Considerable efforts have been devoted to the design and synthesis of COF - based materials for electrochemical applications, including electrodes and membranes for fuel cells, supercapacitors, and batteries [16 - 17]. Some of the applications of POPs are shown in Scheme 2.
Scheme 2: Several different applications of POPs [16 - 17].
Abstracts
( A ) In 2022, Ji and coworkers developed a series of metal locales and imidazolium salt - containing ionic porous organic polymers as bifunctional catalysts. The metal ions ( Zn, Al ) act as epoxide activating sites, and the counter anions associated with the ionic building units in the POPs serve as nucleophiles for CO2 conversion. The N - rich functionalities, Lewis acidic Zn ( II ) centers, and the CO2 - philic porous architecture encouraged them to investigate the catalytic performance of Zn/POFs in the fixation of CO2 and epoxides to cyclic carbonates [18].
( B ) The chemical fixation of CO2 into high value - added cyclic carbonates is of significant potential and sustainability to address the energy and ecological issues. [HDBU]Br@P - DD - m/n, a series of porous organic polymer - supported ionic liquids ( PSILs ) , were fabricated in this work through a one - pot four - component reaction of DMAEMA ( dimethylamino ethyl Methacrylate ) , DVB ( Divinylbenzene ) , 4 - bromobutyric acid, and DBU ( Diazabicyclo[5. 4. 0]undec - 7 - ene ) . Based on the characterization and initial assessment, the as - prepared [HDBU]Br@P - DD - m/n materials were then evaluated in catalyzing the cycloaddition of CO2 and epichlorohydrin ( ECH ) at 80 �C under 1 atm of CO2 pressure for 4 h [19].
( C ) Metal - free catalysis is particularly challenging in the context of green and sustainable chemistry. Therefore, the functional host has unique advantages in CO2 conversion reactions by stabilizing CO2 additives and intermediates through its nitrogen, and oxygen - rich functional sites to produce a high yield ( >90% ) of carbonate. Coskun and co - works reported that sterically constrained NHC ligands for CO2 fixation, even at room temperature and under low CO2 pressure ( 0. 1 MPa ) which was exhibited 97% conversion efficiency [20].
( D ) Through a facile post - synthetic method, different kinds of polar functionalized porous organic polymers ( POP - PA - COOH, POP - PA - OH, and POP - PA - NH2 ) were obtained. These compounds can be used as efficient heterogeneous catalysts in the cycloaddition reaction of CO2 with epoxides under mild and co - catalyst - free conditions. It is demonstrated that POP - PA - NH2 possesses much higher catalytic activity than POP - PA - OH and POP - PA - COOH [21].
( F ) In another study, di - ionic multifunctional POFs ( POF - DI ) , are based on using multiple building blocks with different ion exchange functional sites to construct di - ionic POFs. The resultant di - ionic sites POF - DI can serve as a substrate material for preparing a series of di ionic multifunctional POF heterogeneous catalysts, POF - Zn2 - Cl - , POF - Zn2 - Br - and POF - Zn2 - I - through a feasible ion exchange method. Because of the synergetic effect of two functionalized sites including Zn2 cation as the Lewis acid and halogen anions ( Cl - , Br - or I - ) as the nucleophile, three bifunctional POF catalysts, POF - Zn2 - Cl - , POF - Zn2 - Br - and POF - Zn2 - I - , exhibit high catalytic activity for efficient conversion of CO2 to cyclic carbonate under mild and co - catalysts - free conditions. The reported results not only provide a new route for the development of novel POFs catalysts for CO2 conversion but also highlight the advantage of di ionic POFs as a versatile type of ion exchange platform material for wide applications [22].
( H ) A wide range of triptycene - supported bimetallic salen porous organic polymers have been designed and synthesized. The triptycene units have been used to support the alignment of bimetallic salen macrocycles on the lateral walls of channels, exposing more catalytic metal sites. Experimental results revealed the presence of high permanent porosity and high adsorption ( 196, 273, and 298 ) isothermal heat for BSPOP - Co. Consequently, a cobalt - containing porous organic polymer has shown an efficient catalytic coupling ability of epoxides and CO2 under mild conditions. The reported methodology not only provides a new kind of porous organic polymer but also opens a new gate for exposing more active catalytic sites for efficient heterogeneous catalysis [23].
( I ) Hague et al. , have reported triazine diamine - derived POP - supported copper nanoparticles ( Cu - NPs@TzTa - POP ) : The reported Cu - NPs@TzTa - POP has been used as an efficient catalyst for the synthesis of N - methylated products via CO2 fixation and primary carbamates from alcohols and urea [24].
( J ) In 2021, Tao and coworkers developed ultralow Co loading phenanthroline - based POP as a high - efficient heterogeneous catalyst for the fixation of CO2 to cyclic carbonates. The catalytic performance of Co - Phen - POP has been evaluated for the cycloaddition of CO2 to epoxides at room temperature ( 25 �C ) and low carbon dioxide pressure ( 1–10 bar ) in the presence of TBAB ( Tetrabutylammonium bromide ) as a co - catalyst. The mentioned reaction has been performed under solvent - free as well as ultralow catalyst metal loading [25].
( K ) In 2018, Yu has been reported a one - pot synthesis of an ionic porous organic framework for metal - free catalytic CO2 fixation under ambient conditions. The reported ionic POP ( termed IPF - CSU - 1 ) with a remarkably high nitrogen content ( 20. 3 wt. % ) , a high - density and uniform charge distribution has been used as a metal - free catalyst for CO2 conversion into cyclic carbonates in high yields ( above 95% ) under an ambient condition ( 298 K, 0. 1 MPa ) [26].
( L ) A novel type of porous coordination polymer with titanium alkoxide linkages ( Ti - PCP ) has been successfully constructed through transesterification of a 1, 3 - diol - substituted shape - persistent arylene - ethynylene macrocycle with Ti ( OiPr ) 4. The synthesized PCP with titanium alkoxide linkages has been used for gas adsorption/separation and catalytic conversion of CO2 to cyclic carbonates [27].
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